Canadian Psychiatric Association

Editorial Credits/ Crédits éditorials

Subscription Rates /Prix d'abonnements

Advertising Rates / Tarifs publicitaires (PDF)

Guest Editorial
Imaging Brain Chemistry and Function in Neuropsychiatric Disorders
Peter C Williamson
PDF

In Review
In vivo Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy and Its Application to Neuropsychiatric Disorders
Jeffrey A Stanley
PDF

Studies of Altered Social Cognition in Neuropsychiatric Disorders Using Functional Neuroimaging
Cheryl L Grady, Michelle L Keightley

PDF

Review Papers
Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder: Critical Appraisal of Extended Treatment Studies

Russell Schachar, Alejandro R Jadad, Mary Gauld, Michael Boyle, Lynda Booker, Anne Snider, Marie Kim, Charles Cunningham

PDF

Clinical Implications of a Link Between Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder and Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Kieran D O'Malley, Jo Nanson

PDF

Original Research
Prescription Medication Use Among an Aboriginal Population Accessing Addiction Treatment

Dennis Wardman, Nadia Khan, Nady el-Guebaly

PDF

The Impact of Latitude on the Prevalence of Seasonal Depression
Anthony J Levitt, Michael H Boyle

PDF

Preliminary Assessment of Intrahemispheric QEEG Measures in Bipolar Mood Disorders
OJ Oluboka, SL Stewart, V Sharma, D Mazmanian, E Persad

PDF

Brief Communciation
Hepatic Adverse Reactions Associated With Nefazodone
Donna E Stewart

PDF


Book Reviews
(PDF - all reviews)

Functional Neuroimaging in Child Psychiatry

Handbook of Cultural Psychiatry

The Empathetic Healer: An Endangered Species?

Cognitive Rehabilitiation: An Integrative Neuropsychological Approach

The Madness of Adam and Eve: How Schizophrenia Shaped Humanity


Letters to the Editor
(PDF - all letters)

Evidence-Based Psychiatry

Evidence-Based Psychiatry: Response

Research Ethics and Forensic Psychiatry: A Comment on Regehr and Others

Research Ethics and Forensic Psychiatry: Response

Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation is Useful for Maintenance Treatment

The Mood Disorder Questionnaire for Assessing Bipolar Spectrum Disorder Frequency

Capgras Syndrome and Blindness: Against the Prosopagnosia Hypothesis

Re: New Centry: Overcoming Stigma, Respecting Differences—Dr Myers' Superlative Presidential Address

Steroid-Induced Psychosis Treated With Risperidone

In Vivo Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy and Its Application to Neuropsychiatric Disorders



References

1.Stanley JA, Pettegrew JW, Keshavan MS. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy in schizophrenia: Methodological issues and findings-part I. Biol Psychiatry 2000;48:357–68.

2.Farrar TC, Becker ED. Pulse and Fourier transform NMR; introduction to theory and methods. New York: Academic Press; 1971.

3.Fukushima E, Roeder SBW. Experimental pulse NMR: a nuts and bolts approach. Reading (MA): Addison-Wesley Pub. Co. Advanced Book Program; 1981.

4.Gadian DG. NMR and its applications to living systems. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press; 1995.

5.Coyle JT. The nagging question of the function of N-acetylaspartylglutamate. Neurobiol Dis 1997;4:231–8.

6.Tsai G, Coyle JT. N-acetylaspartate in neuropsychiatric disorders. Prog Neurobiol 1995;46:531–40.

7.Magistretti PJ, Pellerin L. Cellular mechanisms of brain energy metabolism and their relevance to functional brain imaging. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 1999;354:1155–63.

8.Rothman DL, Sibson NR, Hyder F, Shen J, Behar KL, Shulman RG. In vivo nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies of the relationship between the glutamate- glutamine neurotransmitter cycle and functional neuroenergetics. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 1999;354:1165–77.

9.Michaelis T, Merboldt KD, Bruhn H, Hanicke W, Frahm J. Absolute concentrations of metabolites in the adult human brain in vivo: Quantification of localized proton MR spectra. Radiology 1993;187:219–27.

10.Frahm J, Bruhn H, Gyngell ML, Merboldt KD, Hanicke W, Sauter R. Localized proton NMR spectroscopy in different regions of the human brain in vivo. Relaxation times and concentrations of cerebral metabolites. Magn Reson Med 1989;11:47–63.

11.Bessman SP, Geiger PJ. Transport of energy in muscle: The phosphorylcreatine shuttle. Science 1981;211:448–52.

12.Wallimann T, Wyss M, Brdiczka D, Nicolay K, Eppenberger HM. Intracellular compartmentation, structure and function of creatine kinase isoenzymes in tissues with high and fluctuating energy demands: The ‘phosphocreatine circuit’ for cellular energy homeostasis. Biochem J 1992;281:21–40.

13.Dawson RMC. Enzymatic pathways of phospholipid metabolism in the nervous system. In: Eichberg J, editor. Phospholipids in nervous tissues. New York: Wiley; 1985:45–78.

14.Pettegrew JW, Kopp SJ, Minshew NJ, Glonek T, Feliksik JM, Tow JP, and others. 31P nuclear magnetic resonance studies of phosphoglyceride metabolism in developing and degenerating brain: Preliminary observations. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1987;46:419–30.

15.Geddes JW, Pandey GN, Keller JN, Pettegrew JW. Elevated phosphocholine and phosphatidyl choline following rat entorhinal cortex lesions. Neurobiol Aging 1997;18:305–8.

16.Miller BL. A review of chemical issues in 1H NMR spectroscopy: N-acetyl-l- aspartate, creatine and choline. NMR Biomed 1991;4:47–52.

17.Hetherington HP, Pan JW, Mason GF, Ponder SL, Twieg DB, Deutsch G, and others. 2d 1H spectroscopic imaging of the human brain at 4.1 T. Magn Reson Med 1994;32:530–4.

18.Prost RW, Mark L, Mewissen M, Li SJ. Detection of glutamate/glutamine resonances by 1H magnetic resonance spectroscopy at 0.5 tesla. Magn Reson Med 1997;37:615–8.

19.Bartha R, Drost DJ, Menon RS, Williamson PC. Comparison of the quantification precision of human short echo time (1)h spectroscopy at 1.5 and 4.0 tesla. Magn Reson Med 2000;44:185–92.

20.Barker PB, Hearshen DO, Boska MD. Single-voxel proton MRS of the human brain at 1.5T and 3.0T. Magn Reson Med 2001;45:765–9.

21.Tkac I, Andersen P, Adriany G, Merkle H, Ugurbil K, Gruetter R. In vivo 1H NMR spectroscopy of the human brain at 7 T. Magn Reson Med 2001;46:451–6.

22.Bottomley PA. Spatial localization in NMR spectroscopy in vivo. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1987;508:333–48.

23.Ordidge RJ, Connelly A, Lohman JB. Image-selected in vivo spectroscopy (ISIS). A new technique for spatially selective NMR spectroscopy. J Magn Reson 1986;66:283–94.

24.Merboldt KD, Chien D, Hanicke W, Gyngell ML, Bruhn H, Frahm J. Localized 31P NMR spectroscopy of the adult human brain in vivo using stimulated-echo (STEAM) sequences. J Magn Reson 1990;89:343–61.

25.Lim KO, Pauly J, Webb P, Hurd R, Macovski A. Short TE phosphorus spectroscopy using a spin-echo pulse. Magn Reson Med 1994;32:98–103.

26.Brown TR. Practical applications of chemical shift imaging. NMR Biomed 1992;5:238–43.

27.Stanley JA, Pettegrew JW. A post-processing method to segregate and quantify the broad components underlying the phosphodiester spectral region of in vivo 31P brain spectra. Magn Reson Med 2001;45:390–6.

28.Murphy EJ, Bates TE, Williams SR, Watson T, Brindle KM, Rajagopalan B, and others. Endoplasmic reticulum: the major contributor to the pde peak in hepatic 31P-NMR spectra at low magnetic field strengths. Biochim Biophys Acta 1992;1111:51–8.

29.Murphy EJ, Rajagopalan B, Brindle KM, Radda GK. Phospholipid bilayer contribution to 31P NMR spectra in vivo. Magn Reson Med 1989;12:282–9.

30.Kilby PM, Allis JL, Radda GK. Spin-spin relaxation of the phosphodiester resonance in the 31P NMR spectrum of human brain. The determination of the concentrations of phosphodiester components. FEBS Lett 1990;272:163–5.

31.Kilby PM, Bolas NM, Radda GK. 31P-NMR study of brain phospholipid structures in vivo. Biochim Biophys Acta 1991;1085:257–64.

32.Pettegrew JW, Panchalingam K, Klunk WE, McClure RJ, Muenz LR. Alterations of cerebral metabolism in probable Alzheimer’s disease: A preliminary study. Neurobiol Aging 1994;15:117–32.

33.Patel TB, Clark JB. Synthesis of N-acetyl-l-aspartate by rat brain mitochondria and its involvement in mitochondrial/cytosolic carbon transport. Biochem J 1979;184:539–46.

34.Truckenmiller ME, Namboodiri MAA, Brownstein MJ, Neale JH. N-acetylation of l-aspartate in the nervous system: differential distribution of a specific enzyme. J Neurochem 1985;45:1658–62.

35.Koller KJ, Zaczek R, Coyle J. N-acetyl-aspartyl-glutamate: regional levels in rat brain and the effects of brain lesions as determined by a new hplc method. J Neurochem 1984;43:1136–42.

36.Simmons ML, Frondoza CG, Coyle JT. Immunocytochemical localization of N-acetyl-aspartate with monoclonal antibodies. Neuroscience 1991;45:37–45.

37.Nadler JV, Cooper JR. N-acetyl-l-aspartic acid content of human neural tumours and bovine peripheral nervous tissues. J Neurochem 1972;19:313–9.

38.Moffett JR, Namboodiri MA, Cangro CB, Neale JH. Immunohistochemical localization of N-acetylaspartate in rat brain. Neuroreport 1991;2:131–4.

39.Urenjak J, Williams SR, Gadian DG, Noble M. Proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy unambiguously identifies different neural cell types. J Neurosci 1993;13:981–9.

40.Matalon R, Michals K, Sebesta D, Deanching M, Gashkoff P, Casanova J. Aspartoacylase deficiency and N-acetylaspartic aciduria in patients with Canavan disease. Am J Med Genet 1988;29:463–71.

41.Shaag A, Anikster Y, Christensen E, Glustein JZ, Fois A, Michelakakis H, and others. The molecular basis of canavan (aspartoacylase deficiency) disease in European non-Jewish patients. Am J Hum Genet 1995;57:572–80.

42.Baslow MH, Resnik TR. Canavan disease. Analysis of the nature of the metabolic lesions responsible for development of the observed clinical symptoms. J Mol Neurosci 1997;9:109–25.

43.De Stefano N, Matthews PM, Arnold DL. Reversible decreases in N-acetylaspartate after acute brain injury. Magn Reson Med 1995;34:721–7.

44.Jagannathan NR, Tandon N, Raghunathan P, Kochupillai N. Reversal of abnormalities of myelination by thyroxine therapy in congenital hypothyroidism: Localized in vivo proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) study. Brain Res Dev Brain Res 1998;109:179–86.

45.Bhakoo KK, Pearce D. In vitro expression of N-acetyl aspartate by oligodendrocytes: Implications for proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy signal in vivo. J Neurochem 2000;74:254–62.

46.Chakraborty G, Mekala P, Yahya D, Wu G, Ledeen RW. Intraneuronal N-acetylaspartate supplies acetyl groups for myelin lipid synthesis: Evidence for myelin-associated aspartoacylase. J Neurochem 2001;78:736–45.

47.Bhakoo KK, Craig TJ, Styles P. Developmental and regional distribution of aspartoacylase in rat brain tissue. J Neurochem 2001;79:211–20.

48.Baslow MH. Functions of N-acetyl-l-aspartate and N-acetyl-l-aspartylglutamate in the vertebrate brain: role in glial cell-specific signaling. J Neurochem 2000;75:453–9.

49.Baslow MH. Evidence supporting a role for N-acetyl-l-aspartate as a molecular water pump in myelinated neurons in the central nervous system. An analytical review. Neurochem Int 2002;40:295–300.

50.Govindaraju V, Young K, Maudsley AA. Proton NMR chemical shifts and coupling constants for brain metabolites. NMR Biomed 2000;13:129–53.

51.Rothman DL, Petroff OA, Behar KL, Mattson RH. Localized 1H NMR measurements of gamma-aminobutyric acid in human brain in vivo. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1993;90:5662–6.

52.Wilman AH, Allen PS. Yield enhancement of a double-quantum filter sequence designed for the edited detection of gaba. J Magn Reson B 1995;109:169–74.

53.Keltner JR, Wald LL, Frederick BD, Renshaw PF. In vivo detection of gaba in human brain using a localized double-quantum filter technique. Magn Reson Med 1997;37:366–71.

54.Allen PS, Thompson RB, Wilman AH. Metabolite-specific NMR spectroscopy in vivo. NMR Biomed 1997;10:435–44.

55.Hao L, Peeling J. Simultaneous spectral editing for gamma -aminobutyric acid and taurine using double quantum coherence transfer. J Magn Reson 2000;143:95–100.

56.Sanacora G, Mason GF, Rothman DL, Behar KL, Hyder F, Petroff OA, and others. Reduced cortical gamma-aminobutyric acid levels in depressed patients determined by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999;56:1043–7.

57.Sanacora G, Mason GF, Krystal JH. Impairment of gabaergic transmission in depression: new insights from neuroimaging studies. Crit Rev Neurobiol 2000;14:23–45.

58.Goddard AW, Mason GF, Almai A, Rothman DL, Behar KL, Petroff OA, and others. Reductions in occipital cortex gaba levels in panic disorder detected with 1H-magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001;58:556–61.

59.Trabesinger AH, Weber OM, Duc CO, Boesiger P. Detection of glutathione in the human brain in vivo by means of double quantum coherence filtering. Magn Reson Med 1999;42:283-9.

60.Meister A, Anderson ME. Glutathione. Annu Rev Biochem 1983;52:711–60.

61.Mahadik SP, Mukherjee S. Free radical pathology and antioxidant defense in schizophrenia: a review. Schizophr Res 1996;19:1–17.

62.Do KQ, Trabesinger AH, M. K-K, Lauer CJ, Dydak U, Hell D, and others. A unified hypothesis of schizophrenia based on glutathione deficit. [abstract]. Biol Psychiatry 1999;45:42.

63.Andreasen NC. A unitary model of schizophrenia bleuler’s “fragmented phrene” as schizencephaly. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1999;56:781–7.

64.McCarley RW, Wible CG, Frumin M, Hirayasu Y, Levitt JJ, Fischer IA, and others. MRI anatomy of schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 1999;45:1099–119.

65.Ross CA, Pearlson GD. Schizophrenia, the heteromodal association neocortex and development: Potential for a neurogenetic approach. Trends Neurosci 1996;19:171–6.

66.Andreasen NC, Rezai K, Alliger R, Swayze VW, 2nd, Flaum M, Kirchner P, and others. Hypofrontality in neuroleptic-naive patients and in patients with chronic schizophrenia. Assessment with xenon 133 single-photon emission computed tomography and the tower of london. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1992;49:943–58.

67.Lieberman JA, Sheitman BB, Kinon BJ. Neurochemical sensitization in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia: deficits and dysfunction in neuronal regulation and plasticity. Neuropsychopharmacology 1997;17:205–29.

68.Farber NB, Newcomer JW, Olney JW. The glutamate synapse in neuropsychiatric disorders. Focus on schizophrenia and alzheimer’s disease. Prog Brain Res 1998;116:421–37.

69.Keshavan MS. Development, disease and degeneration in schizophrenia: a unitary pathophysiological model. J Psychiatr Res 1999;33:513–21.

70.Lewis DA. Schizophrenia and disordered neural circuitry. Schizophr Bull 1997;23:529–31.

71.Fenton WS, Hibbeln J, Knable M. Essential fatty acids, lipid membrane abnormalities, and the diagnosis and treatment of schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2000;47:8–21.

72.Murray RM, Lewis SW. Is schizophrenia a neurodevelopmental disorder? Br Med J 1987;295:681–2.

73.Weinberger Dr From neuropathology to neurodevelopment. Lancet 1995;346:552–7.

74.Marenco S, Weinberger DR The neurodevelopmental hypothesis of schizophrenia: following a trail of evidence from cradle to grave. Dev Psychopathol 2000;12:501–27.

75.Feinberg I. Schizophrenia and late maturational brain changes in man. Psychopharmacol Bull 1982;18:29–31.

76.Hoffman RE, McGlashan TH. Parallel distributed processing and the emergence of schizophrenic symptoms. Schizophr Bull 1993;19:119–40.

77.Keshavan MS, Anderson S, Pettegrew JW. Is schizophrenia due to excessive synaptic pruning in the prefrontal cortex? J Psychiatr Res 1994;28:239–65.

78.Pettegrew JW, Keshavan MS, Panchalingam K, Strychor S, Kaplan DB, Tretta MG, and others. Alterations in brain high-energy phosphate and membrane phospholipid metabolism in first-episode, drug-naive schizophrenics. A pilot study of the dorsal prefrontal cortex by in vivo phosphorus 31 nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991;48:563–8.

79.Selemon LD, Goldman-Rakic PS. The reduced neuropil hypothesis: a circuit based model of schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 1999;45:17–25.

80.Williamson P, Drost D, Stanley J, Carr T, Morrison S, Merskey H. Localized phosphorus 31 magnetic resonance spectroscopy in chronic schizophrenic patients and normal controls [letter]. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991;48:578.

81.Stanley JA, Williamson PC, Drost DJ, Carr TJ, Rylett RJ, Malla A, and others. An in vivo study of the prefrontal cortex of schizophrenic patients at different stages of illness via phosphorus magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1995;52:399–406.

82.Fukuzako H, Fukuzako T, Hashiguchi T, Kodama S, Takigawa M, Fujimoto T. Changes in levels of phosphorus metabolites in temporal lobes of drug-naive schizophrenic patients. Am J Psychiatry 1999;156:1205–8.

83.Stanley JA, Keshavan MS, Panchalingam K, McClure RJ, Pettegrew JW. Membrane phospholipid metabolite alterations in prefrontal and basal ganglia regions in schizophrenia: An in vivo 31P and 1H MRSI study. Proceedings of the 9th Annual meeting of the International Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 2001; ISMRM: Berkeley (CA). p1016.

84.Potwarka JJ, Drost DJ, Williamson PC, Carr T, Canaran G, Rylett WJ, and others. A 1H-decoupled 31P chemical shift imaging study of medicated schizophrenic patients and healthy controls. Biol Psychiatry 1999;45:687–93.

85.Keshavan MS, Stanley JA, Pettegrew JW. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy in schizophrenia: methodological issues and findings-part II. Biol Psychiatry 2000;48:369–80.

86.Pettegrew JW, Keshavan MS, Minshew NJ. 31P nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy: Neurodevelopment and schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1993;19:35–53.

87.Klemm S, Rzanny R, Riehemann S, Volz HP, Schmidt B, Gerhard UJ, and others. Cerebral phosphate metabolism in first-degree relatives of patients with schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry. 2001;158:958–60.

88.Stanley JA, Pettegrew JW, Panchalingam K, McClure RJ, Harenski K, Montrose M, and others. Altered membrane phospholipid metabolism in both offsprings of schizophrenia parents and in first-episode never medicated schizophrenia subjects: An in vivo 31P MRS study. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts 2000;26:1575.

89.Stanley JA, Williamson PC, Drost DJ, Rylett RJ, Carr TJ, Malla A, and others. An in vivoproton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study of schizophrenia patients. Schizophr Bull 1996;22:597–609.

90.Bartha R, Williamson PC, Drost DJ, Malla A, Carr TJ, Cortese L, and others. Measurement of glutamate and glutamine in the medial prefrontal cortex of never-treated schizophrenic patients and healthy controls by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1997;54:959–65.

91.Bartha R, al-Semaan YM, Williamson PC, Drost DJ, Malla AK, Carr TJ, and others. A short echo proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study of the left mesial-temporal lobe in first-onset schizophrenic patients. Biol Psychiatry 1999;45:1403–11.

92.Provencher SW. Estimation of metabolite concentrations from localized in vivo proton NMR spectra. Magn Reson Med 1993;30:672–9.

93.Stanley JA, Drost DJ, Williamson PC, Thompson RT. The use of a priori knowledge to quantify short echo in vivo 1H MR spectra. Magn Reson Med 1995;34:17–24.

94.Bartha R, Drost DJ, Williamson PC. Factors affecting the quantification of short echo in- vivo 1H MR spectra: Prior knowledge, peak elimination, and filtering. NMR Biomed 1999;12:205–16.

95.Cecil KM, Lenkinski RE, Gur RE, Gur RC. Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy in the frontal and temporal lobes of neuroleptic naive patients with schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 1999;20:131–40.

96.Mathalon DH, Sullivan EV, Lim KO, Pfefferbaum A. Progressive brain volume changes and the clinical course of schizophrenia in men: A longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 2001;58:148–57.

97.Thompson PM, Vidal C, Giedd JN, Gochman P, Blumenthal J, Nicolson R, and others. Mapping adolescent brain change reveals dynamic wave of accelerated gray matter loss in very early-onset schizophrenia. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2001;98:11650–5.

98.Norris SD, Krishnan KR, Ahearn E. Structural changes in the brain of patients with bipolar affective disorder by MRI: a review of the literature. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1997;21:1323–37.

99.Altshuler LL, Bartzokis G, Grieder T, Curran J, Jimenez T, Leight K, and others. An MRI study of temporal lobe structures in men with bipolar disorder or schizophrenia. Biol Psychiatry 2000;48:147–62.

100.Drevets WC. Functional neuroimaging studies of depression: The anatomy of melancholia. Annu Rev Med 1998;49:341–61.

101.Liotti M, Mayberg HS. The role of functional neuroimaging in the neuropsychology of depression. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol 2001;23:121–36.

102.Strakowski SM, DelBello MP, Adler C, Cecil DM, Sax KW. Neuroimaging in bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord 2000;2:148–64.

103.Soares JC, Mann JJ. The anatomy of mood disorders—review of structural neuroimaging studies. Biol Psychiatry 1997;41:86–106.

104.Dupont RM, Jernigan TL, Gillin JC, Butters N, Delis DC, Hesselink JR. Subcortical signal hyperintensities in bipolar patients detected by MRI. Psychiatry Res 1987;21:357–8.

105.Altshuler LL, Curran JG, Hauser P, Mintz J, Denicoff K, Post R. T2 hyperintensities in bipolar disorder: Magnetic resonance imaging comparison and literature meta-analysis. Am J Psychiatry1995;152:1139–44.

106.Ketter TA, Andreason PJ, George MS, Lee C, Gill DS, Parekh PI, and others. Anterior paralimbic mediation of procaine-induced emotional and psychosensory experiences. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1996;53:59–69.

107.George MS, Ketter TA, Post RM. SPECT and PET imaging in mood disorders. J Clin Psychiatry 1993;54 (Suppl):6–13.

108.Soares JC, Mann JJ. The functional neuroanatomy of mood disorders. J Psychiatr Res 1997;31:393–432.

109.Kato T, Takahashi S, Shioiri T, Inubushi T. Brain phosphorous metabolism in depressive disorders detected by phosphorus-31 magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J Affect Disord 1992;26:223–30.

110.Kato T, Takahashi S, Shioiri T, Inubushi T. Alterations in brain phosphorous metabolism in bipolar disorder detected by in vivo 31P and 7Li magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J Affect Disord 1993;27:53–9.

111.Deicken RF, Fein G, Weiner MW. Abnormal frontal lobe phosphorous metabolism in bipolar disorder. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:915–8.

112.Deicken RF, Weiner MW, Fein G. Decreased temporal lobe phosphomonoesters in bipolar disorder. J Affect Disord 1995;33:195–9.

113.Kato T, Shioiri T, Takahashi S, Inubushi T. Measurement of brain phosphoinositide metabolism in bipolar patients using in vivo 31P-MRS. J Affect Disord 1991;22:185–90.

114.Kato T, Shioiri T, Murashita J, Hamakawa H, Takahashi Y, Inubushi T, and others. Lateralized abnormality of high energy phosphate metabolism in the frontal lobes of patients with bipolar disorder detected by phase- encoded 31P-MRS. Psychol Med 1995;25:557–66.

115.Kato T, Takahashi S, Shioiri T, Murashita J, Hamakawa H, Inubushi T. Reduction of brain phosphocreatine in bipolar II disorder detected by phosphorus-31 magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J Affect Disord 1994;31:125–33.

116.Sharma R, Venkatasubramanian PN, Barany M, Davis JM. Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the brain in schizophrenic and affective patients. Schizophr Res 1992;8:43–9.

117.Kato T, Hamakawa H, Shioiri T, Murashita J, Takahashi Y, Takahashi S, and others. Choline-containing compounds detected by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy in the basal ganglia in bipolar disorder. J Psychiatry Neurosci 1996;21:248–54.

118.Hamakawa H, Kato T, Murashita J, Kato N. Quantitative proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the basal ganglia in patients with affective disorders. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1998;248:53–8.

119.Moore CM, Breeze JL, Gruber SA, Babb SM, Frederick BB, Villafuerte RA, and others. Choline, myo-inositol and mood in bipolar disorder: A proton magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging study of the anterior cingulate cortex. Bipolar Disord 2000;2:207–16.

120.Ohara K, Isoda H, Suzuki Y, Takehara Y, Ochiai M, Takeda H, and others. Proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the lenticular nuclei in bipolar i affective disorder. Psychiatry Res 1998;84:55–60.

121.Winsberg ME, Sachs N, Tate DL, Adalsteinsson E, Spielman D, Ketter TA. Decreased dorsolateral prefrontal N-acetyl aspartate in bipolar disorder. Biol Psychiatry 2000;47:475–81.

122.Deicken RF, Eliaz Y, Feiwell R, Schuff N. Increased thalamic N-acetylaspartate in male patients with familial bipolar i disorder. Psychiatry Res 2001;106:35–45.

123.Yildiz A, Sachs GS, Dorer DJ, Renshaw PF. 31P nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy findings in bipolar illness: a meta-analysis. Psychiatry Res 2001;106:181–91.

124.Kato T, Shioiri T, Murashita J, Hamakawa H, Inubushi T, Takahashi S. Phosphorus-31 magnetic resonance spectroscopy and ventricular enlargement in bipolar disorder. Psychiatry Res 1994;55:41–50.

125.Kato T, Inubushi T, Kato N. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy in affective disorders. J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 1998;10:133–47.

126.Berridge MJ, Irvine RF. Inositol phosphates and cell signalling. Nature 1989;341:197–205.

127.Berridge MJ, Downes CP, Hanley MR. Neural and developmental actions of lithium: a unifying hypothesis. Cell 1989;59:411–9.

128.Berridge MJ, Downes CP, Hanley MR. Lithium amplifies agonist-dependent phosphatidylinositol responses in brain and salivary glands. Biochem J 1982;206:587–95.

129.Castillo M, Kwock L, Courvoisie H, Hooper SR. Proton MR spectroscopy in children with bipolar affective disorder: Preliminary observations. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 2000;21:832–8.

130.Davanzo P, Thomas MA, Yue K, Oshiro T, Belin T, Strober M, and others. Decreased anterior cingulate myo-inositol/creatine spectroscopy resonance with lithium treatment in children with bipolar disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 2001;24:359–69.

131.Volz HP, Rzanny R, Riehemann S, May S, Hegewald H, Preussler B, and others. 31P magnetic resonance spectroscopy in the frontal lobe of major depressed patients. Eur Arch Psychiatry Clin Neurosci 1998;248:289–95.

132.Moore CM, Christensen JD, Lafer B, Fava M, Renshaw PF. Lower levels of nucleoside triphosphate in the basal ganglia of depressed subjects: a phosphorous-31 magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Am J Psychiatry 1997;154:116–8.

133.Pettegrew JW, Levine J, Gershon S, Stanley JA, Servan-Schreiber D, Panchalingam K, and others. 31P-MRS study of acetyl-l-carnitine treatment in geriatric depression: preliminary results. Bipolar Disorders 2002; forthcoming.

134.Auer DP, Putz B, Kraft E, Lipinski B, Schill J, Holsboer F. Reduced glutamate in the anterior cingulate cortex in depression: An in vivo proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy study. Biol Psychiatry 2000;47:305–13.

135.American Psychiatric Association. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders.Washington (DC): American Psychiatric Association; 1994.

136.Rumsey JM, Ernst M. Functional neuroimaging of autistic disorders. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 2000;6:171–9.

137.Kemper TL, Bauman M. Neuropathology of infantile autism. J Neuropathol Exp Neurol 1998;57:645–52.

138.Piven J, Arndt S, Bailey J, Havercamp S, Andreasen NC, Palmer P. An MRI study of brain size in autism. Am J Psychiatry 1995;152:1145–9.

139.Piven J, Nehme E, Simon J, Barta P, Pearlson G, Folstein SE. Magnetic resonance imaging in autism: measurement of the cerebellum, pons, and fourth ventricle. Biol Psychiatry 1992;31:491–504.

140.Courchesne E, Karns CM, Davis HR, Ziccardi R, Carper RA, Tigue ZD, and others. Unusual brain growth patterns in early life in patients with autistic disorder: an MRI study. Neurology 2001;57:245–54.

141.Lainhart JE, Piven J, Wzorek M, Landa R, Santangelo SL, Coon H, and others. Macrocephaly in children and adults with autism. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1997;36:282–90.

142.Saitoh O, Karns CM, Courchesne E. Development of the hippocampal formation from 2 to 42 years: MRI evidence of smaller area dentata in autism. Brain 2001;124:1317–24.

143.Minshew NJ, Goldstein G, Dombrowski SM, Panchalingam K, Pettegrew JW. A preliminary 31P MRS study of autism: Evidence for undersynthesis and increased degradation of brain membranes. Biol Psychiatry 1993;33:762–73.

144.Hashimoto T, Tayama M, Miyazaki M, Yoneda Y, Yoshimoto T, Harada M, and others. Differences in brain metabolites between patients with autism and mental retardation as detected by in vivo localized proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J Child Neurol 1997;12:91-6.

145.Otsuka H, Harada M, Mori K, Hisaoka S, Nishitani H. Brain metabolites in the hippocampus-amygdala region and cerebellum in autism: an 1H-MR spectroscopy study. Neuroradiology 1999;41:517–9.

146.Chugani DC, Sundram BS, Behen M, Lee ML, Moore GJ. Evidence of altered energy metabolism in autistic children. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1999;23:635–41.

147.Hisaoka S, Harada M, Nishitani H, Mori K. Regional magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the brain in autistic individuals. Neuroradiology 2001;43:496–8.

148.Jernigan TL, Zisook S, Heaton RK, Moranville JT, Hesselink JR, Braff DL. Magnetic resonance imaging abnormalities in lenticular nuclei and cerebral cortex in schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1991;48:881–90.

149.Pfefferbaum A, Mathalon DH, Sullivan EV, Rawles JM, Zipursky RB, Lim KO. A quantitative magnetic resonance imaging study of changes in brain morphology from infancy to late adulthood. Arch Neurol 1994;51:874–87.

150.Caviness VS, Jr., Kennedy DN, Richelme C, Rademacher J, Filipek PA. The human brain age 7-11 years: a volumetric analysis based on magnetic resonance images. Cereb Cortex 1996;6:726–36.

151. Reiss AL, Abrams MT, Singer HS, Ross JL, Denckla MB. Brain development, gender and IQ in children. A volumetric imaging study. Brain 1996;119:1763–74.

152.Giedd JN, Blumenthal J, Jeffries NO, Castellanos FX, Liu H, Zijdenbos A, and others. Brain development during childhood and adolescence: a longitudinal MRI study. Nat Neurosci 1999;2:861–3.

153.Stanley JA, Minshew NJ, Keshavan MS, Panchalingam K, McClure RJ, Pettegrew JW. Assessing the age-dependent profile in the frontal and centrum semiovale regions of healthy normal controls using in vivo 31P MRS. Proceedings of the 8th Annual meeting of the International Society of Magnetic Resonance in Medicine. 2000; ISMRM: Berkeley (CA). p 1130.

154.De Bellis MD, Keshavan MS, Beers SR, Hall J, Frustaci K, Masalehdan A, and others. Sex differences in brain maturation during childhood and adolescence. Cereb Cortex 2001;11:552–7.

155.Riehemann S, Volz HP, Wenda B, Hubner G, Rossger G, Rzanny R, and others. Frontal lobe in vivo 31P-MRS reveals gender differences in healthy controls, not in schizophrenics. NMR Biomed 1999;12:483–9.

156.Ross B, Bluml S. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the human brain. Anat Rec 2001;265:54–84.

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Manuscript received and accepted March 2002.

1Assistant Professor, Department of Psychiatry, Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.

Address for correspondence: Dr JA Stanley, University of Pittsburgh, Room 721 Parran Hall/GSPH, 130 DeSoto Street, Pittsburgh, PA 15213

e-mail: stanley@pitt.edu